1. Technical Field
The invention relates generally to offshore drilling systems which are employed for drilling subsea wells. More particularly, the invention relates to an offshore drilling system which maintains a dual pressure gradient, one pressure gradient above the well and another pressure gradient in the well, during a drilling operation.
2. Background Art
Deep water drilling from a floating vessel typically involves the use of a large-diameter marine riser, e.g. a 21-inch marine riser, to connect the floating vessel's surface equipment to a blowout preventer stack on a subsea wellhead. The floating vessel may be moored or dynamically positioned at the drill site. However, dynamically-positioned drilling vessels are predominantly used in deep water drilling. The primary functions of the marine riser are to guide the drill string and other tools from the floating vessel to the subsea wellhead and to conduct drilling fluid and earth-cuttings from a subsea well to the floating vessel. The marine riser is made up of multiple riser joints, which are special casings with coupling devices that allow them to be interconnected to form a tubular passage for receiving drilling tools and conducting drilling fluid. The lower end of the riser is normally releasably latched to the blowout preventer stack, which usually includes a flexible joint that permits the riser to angularly deflect as the floating vessel moves laterally from directly over the well. The upper end of the riser includes a telescopic joint that compensates for the heave of the floating vessel. The telescopic joint is secured to a drilling rig on the floating vessel via cables that are reeved to sheaves on riser tensioners adjacent the rig's moon pool.
The riser tensioners are arranged to maintain an upward pull on the riser. This upward pull prevents the riser from buckling under its own weight, which can be quite substantial for a riser extending over several hundred feet. The riser tensioners are adjustable to allow adequate support for the riser as water depth and the number of riser joints needed to reach the blowout preventer stack increases. In very deep water, the weight of the riser can become so great that the riser tensioners would be rendered ineffective. To ensure that the riser tensioners work effectively, buoyant devices are attached to some of the riser joints to make the riser weigh less when submerged in water. The buoyant devices are typically steel cylinders that are filled with air or plastic foam devices.
The maximum practical water depth for current drilling practices with a large diameter marine riser is approximately 7,000 feet. As the need to add to energy reserves increases, the frontiers of energy exploration are being pushed into ever deeper waters, thus making the development of drilling techniques for ever deeper waters increasingly more important. However, several aspects of current drilling practices with a conventional marine riser inherently limit deep water drilling to water depths less than approximately 7,000 feet.
The first limiting factor is the severe weight and space penalties imposed on a floating vessel as water depth increases. In deep water drilling, the drilling fluid or mud volume in the riser constitutes a majority of the total mud circulation system and increases with increasing water depth. The capacity of the 21-inch marine riser is approximately 400 barrels for every 1,000 feet. It has been estimated that the weight attributed to the marine riser and mud volume for a rig drilling at a water depth of 6,000 feet is 1,000 to 1,500 tons. As can be appreciated, the weight and space requirements for a drilling rig that can support the large volumes of fluids required for circulation and the number of riser joints required to reach the seafloor prohibit the use of the 21-inch riser, or any other large-diameter riser, for drilling at extreme water depths using the existing offshore drilling fleet.
The second limiting factor relates to the loads applied to the wall of a large-diameter riser in very deep water. As water depth increases, so does the natural period of the riser in the axial direction. At a water depth of about 10,000 feet, the natural period of the riser is around 5 to 6 seconds. This natural period coincides with the period of the water waves and can result in high levels of energy being imparted on the drilling vessel and the riser, especially when the bottom end of the riser is disconnected from the blowout preventer stack. The dynamic stresses due to the interaction between the heave of the drilling vessel and the riser can result in high compression waves that may exceed the capacity of the riser.
In water depths 6,000 feet and greater, the 21-in riser is flexible enough that angular and lateral deflections over the entire length of the riser will occur due to the water currents acting on the riser. Therefore, in order to keep the riser deflections within acceptable limits during drilling operations, tight station keeping is required. Frequently, the water currents are severe enough that station keeping is not sufficient to permit drilling operations to continue. Occasionally, water currents are so severe that the riser must be disconnected from the blowout preventer stack to avoid damage or permanent deformation. To prevent frequent disconnection of the riser, an expensive fairing may have to be deployed or additional tension applied to the riser. From an operational standpoint, a fairing is not desirable because it is heavy and difficult to install and disconnect. On the other hand, additional riser tensioners may over-stress the riser and impose even greater loads on the drilling vessel.
A third limiting factor is the difficulty of retrieving the riser in the event of a storm. Based on the large forces that the riser and the drilling vessel are already subjected to, it is reasonable to conclude that neither the riser nor the drilling vessel would be capable of sustaining the loads imposed by a hurricane. In such a condition, if the drilling vessel is a dynamically positioned type, the drilling vessel will attempt to evade the storm. Storm evasion would be impossible with 10,000 feet of riser hanging from the drilling vessel. Thus, in such a situation, the riser would have to be pulled up entirely.
In addition, before disconnecting the riser from the blowout preventer stack, operations must take place to condition the well so that the well may be safely abandoned. This is required because the well depends on the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column extending from the top end of the riser to the bottom of the well to overcome the pore pressures of the formation. When the mud column in the riser is removed, the hydrostatic pressure gradient is significantly reduced and may not be sufficient to prevent formation fluid influx into the well. Operations to contain well pressure may include setting a plug, such as a storm packer, in the well and closing the blind ram in the blowout preventer stack.
After the storm, the drilling vessel would return to the drill site and deploy the riser to reconnect and resume drilling. In locations like Gulf of Mexico where the average annual number of hurricanes is 2.8 and the maximum warning time of an approaching hurricane is 72 hours, it would be necessary to disconnect and retrieve the riser every time there is a threat of hurricane in the vicinity of the drilling location. This, of course, would translate to huge financial losses to the well operator.
A fourth limiting factor relates to emergency disconnects such as when a dynamically positioned drilling vessel experiences a drive off. A drive off is a condition when a floating drilling vessel loses station keeping capability, loses power, is in imminent danger of colliding with another marine vessel or object, or experiences other conditions requiring rapid evacuation from the drilling location. As in the case of the storm disconnect, well operations are required to condition the well for abandoning. However, there is usually insufficient time in a drive off to perform all of the necessary safe abandonment procedures. Typically, there is only sufficient time to hang off the drill string from the pipe/hanging rams and close the shear/blind rams in the blowout preventer before disconnecting the riser from the blowout preventer stack.
The well hydrostatic pressure gradient derived from the riser height is trapped below the closed blind rams when the riser is disconnected. Thus, the only barrier to the influx of formation fluid into the well is the closed blind rams since the column of mud below the blind rams is insufficient to prevent influx of formation fluid into the well. Prudent drilling operations require two independent barriers to prevent loss of well control. When the riser is disconnected from the blowout preventer stack, large volumes of mud will be dumped onto the seafloor. This is undesirable from both an economic and environmental standpoint.
A fifth limiting factor relates to marginal well control and the need for numerous casing points. In any drilling operation, it is important to control the influx of formation fluid from subsurface formations into the well to prevent blowout. Well control procedures typically involve maintaining the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column above the "open hole" formation pore pressure but, at the same time, not above the formation fracture pressure. In drilling the initial section of the well, the hydrostatic pressure is maintained using seawater as the drilling fluid with the drilling returns discharged onto the seafloor. This is possible because the pore pressures of the formations near the seafloor are close to the seawater hydrostatic pressure at the seafloor.
While drilling the initial section of the well with seawater, formations having pore pressures greater than the seawater hydrostatic pressure may be encountered. In such situations, formation fluids may flow freely into the well. This uncontrolled flow of formation fluids into the well may be so great as to cause washouts of the drilled hole and, possibly, destroy the drilling location. To prevent formation fluid flow into the well, the initial section of the well may be drilled with weighted drilling fluids. However, the current practice of discharging fluid to the seafloor while drilling the initial section of the well does not make this option very attractive. This is because the large volumes of drilling fluids dumped onto the seafloor are not recovered. Large volumes of unrecovered weighted drilling fluids are expensive and, possibly, environmentally undesirable.
After the initial section of the well is drilled to an acceptable depth, using either seawater or weighted drilling fluid, a conductor casing string with a wellhead is run and cemented in place. This is followed by running a blowout preventer stack and marine riser to the seafloor to permit drilling fluid circulation from the drilling vessel to the well and back to the drilling vessel in the usual manner.
In geological areas characterized by rapid sediment deposition and young sediments, fracture pressure is a critical factor in well control. This is because fracture pressure at any point in the well is related to the density of the sediments resting above that point combined with the hydrostatic pressure of the column of seawater above. These sediments are significantly influenced by the overlying body of water and the circulating mud column need only be slightly denser than seawater to fracture the formation. Fortunately, because of the higher bulk density of the rock, the fracture pressure rapidly increases with the depth of penetration below the seafloor and will present a less serious problem after the first few thousand feet are drilled. However, abnormally high pore pressures which are routinely encountered up to 2,000 feet below the seafloor continue to present a problem both when drilling the initial section of the well with seawater and when drilling beyond the initial section of the well with seawater or weighted drilling fluid.
The challenge then becomes balancing the internal pressures of the formation with the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column while continuing drilling of the well. The current practice is to progressively run and cement casings, the next inside the previous, into the hole to protect the "open hole" sections possessing insufficient fracture pressure while allowing weighted drilling fluids to be used to overcome formation pore pressures. It is important that the well be completed with the largest practical casing through the production zone to allow production rates that will justify the high-cost of deep-water developments. Production rates exceeding 10,000 barrels per day are common for deep-water developments, and too small a production casing would limit the productivity of the well, making it uneconomical to complete.
The number of casings run into the hole is significantly affected by water depth. The multiple casings needed to protect the "open hole" while providing the largest practical casing through the production zone requires that the surface hole at the seafloor be larger. A larger surface hole in turn requires a larger subsea wellhead and blowout preventer stack and a larger blowout preventer stack requires a larger marine riser. With a larger riser, more mud is required to fill the riser and a larger drilling vessel is required to carry the mud and support the riser. This cycle repeats itself as water depth increases.
It has been identified that the key to breaking this cycle lies in reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the riser to that of a column of seawater and providing mud with sufficient weight in the well to maintain well control. Various concepts have been presented in the past for achieving this feat; however, none of these concepts known in the prior art have gained commercial acceptance for drilling in ever deeper waters. These concepts can be generally grouped into two categories: the mud lift drilling with a marine riser concept and the riserless drilling concept.
The mud lift drilling with a marine riser concept contemplates a dual-density mud gradient system which includes reducing the density of the mud returns in the riser so that the return mud pressure at the seafloor more closely matches that of seawater. The mud in the well is weighted to maintain well control. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,603,409 to Watkins et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,099,583 to Maus et al. disclose methods of injecting gas into the mud column in the marine riser to lighten the weight of the mud.
The riserless drilling concept contemplates eliminating the large-diameter marine riser as a return annulus and replacing it with one or more small-diameter mud return lines. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,813,495 to Leach removes the marine riser as a return annulus and uses a centrifugal pump to lift mud returns from the seafloor to the surface through a mud return line. A rotating head isolates the mud in the well annulus from the open seawater as the drill string is run in and out of the well.
Drilling rates are significantly affected by the magnitude of the difference between formation pore pressure and mud column pressure. This difference, commonly called "overbalance", is adjusted by changing the density of the mud column. Overbalance is estimated as the additional pressure required to prevent the well from kicking, either during drilling or when pulling a drill string out of the well. This overbalance estimate usually takes into account factors like inaccuracies in predicting formation pore pressures and pressure reductions in the well as a drill string is pulled from the well. Typically, a minimum of 300 to 700 psi overbalance is maintained during drilling operations. Sometimes the overbalance is large enough to damage the formation.
The effect of overbalance on drilling rates varies widely with the type of drill bit, formation type, magnitude of overbalance, and many other factors. For example, in a typical drill bit and formation combination with a drilling rate of 30 feet per hour and an overbalance of 500 psi, it is common for the drilling rate to double to 60 feet per hour if the overbalance is reduced to zero. An even greater increase in drilling rate can be achieved if the mud column pressure is decreased to an underbalanced condition, i.e. mud column pressure is less than formation pressure. Thus, to improve drilling rates, it may be desirable to drill a well in an underbalanced mode or with a minimum of overbalance.
In conventional drilling operations, it is impractical to reduce the mud density to allow faster drilling rates and then increase the mud density to permit tripping the drill string. This is because the circulation time for the complete mud system lasts for several hours, thus making it expensive to repeatedly decrease and increase mud density. Furthermore, such a practice would endanger the operation because a miscalculation could result in a kick.